Human Capital, Inequality and Growth in Transition Economies Essay Example for Free

Human Capital, Inequality and Growth in Transition Economies Essay Human Capital can be defined as the accumulation of competences and knowledge in individuals gained through education and experience, not forgetting their personality attributes. All these put together enable individuals effectivley perform profitable and revenue generating economic activities. Such competent persons in a society are at times reffered to as a workforce or laborforce. Some examples of investments in humans that result in human capital are education, health and training. As Becker says, human capital investments raise the earning ability of individuals, improve health and add to an individuals’ good habits. The term inequality generally refers to disparities in access to opportunities or resources amongst individuals, groups or even countries. Some of the common causes of inequality are; gender, race, age, geographical location and even cultural practices. Inequality normally results in observable differences in levels of growth and development of individuals or from one society to another. Education is the process through which individuals are able to acquire basic skills necessary for life. It is the understanding and interpretation of knowledge that empowers individuals to develop a logical and rational mind. The rational mind is then is able to determine relationships amongts pertinent variables, thereby fostering understanding. Education involves completing curriculum based fixed time achievements, aimed at building professional capabilities. At the individual level, it develops the capabilities and potentials of the individual so as to prepare them to be successful in a specific society or culture. In this case therefore, education serves an individuals’developmental needs. When education happens at the societal level, it is thus defined as a process by which society transmits to new members the values, beliefs, knowledge and symbollic expressions that make communication possible within that society. In this sense, education serves a social and cultural function. Roland (2000) says that transition economics, also known as transformation economics refers to a state whereby economies have gradually changed over from socialism to capitalism, an example being the former socialist economies. There is a shift from standardized prices and monetary theories to institutions geared towards a higher efficiency. This transition can only thrive if there is sustained government and political support. The Soviet Union in full, is known as the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR), It was characterised by a single communist political party, a planned economy and the KGB security agency which closely monitored activities within the union. USSR was formed in December 1922 and by 1956, it was comprised of 15 countries with Moscow being the capital city. The fifteen countries included; Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Estonia, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgzstan, Latvia, Lithuania, Moldova, Russia, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Ukraine and Uzbekistan. Dissolution of USSR begun in 1985 and continued upto 1991, with the fifteen member states gaining their independence a few months before the Soviet Union collapsed in late 1991. Following the collapse of the Soviet Union, restructuring of the administrative functions and development of a market based system was immediately embarked on through Yeltsins’ shock program. The aim was to improve standards of living, ensure equitable resource allocation, create new production avenues, promote liberalization, and provide incentives through privatization activities. However, a free and liberalised market did not come without ny challenges. By 1992 Russia suffered a deppressed life expectancy, twenty five percent of the population lived in abject poverty, there were low birthrates, and a downward sloping Gross Domestic Product (GDP). However, due to increased investment activities, exploitatation of valuable natural resources and increased business development activites, the economy begun to make significant improvement. The aim of this paper is to explore how education as a factor of human capital and inequality influenced growth in transition economies, with respect to the former Soviet Union countries (FSU). Theoretical research Human capital with regard to education and levels of inequality both have an impact on the growth experienced in transition economies. This growth is therefore an end result of quality educational investments and equitable distribution and allocation of vital resources across a country. Such a hypothesis makes growth the dependent variable whose outcome is influenced by two independent variables namely; education and inequality. Observation of growth and development trends in transition economies and the developing world, have shown that education can have both positive and negative impacts on an economy. One of the positive impacts is that persons who possess the relevant knowledge and skills required by organizations are able to access better job opportunities as opposed to those who are poorly educated. In addition, high levels of education enable individuals to secure jobs in other countries, thus helping to alleviate the problem of unemployement in their mother country. Spagat (2002) observed that during Russia’s transition, intellectual individuals were more motivated to pursue more education opportunities and in return, became very successful in their careers. In regard to the economic transition in the former Soviet Union countries (FSU), educated parents who still held education in high esteem, were very focused on ensuring that their children acquired the same level of education as them or even higher. While on the other hand those parents who viewed education as a burden rather than an investment focused on the bare minimum, that is, basic education. The result of this attitude was that these particular families remained trapped at a basic education level and so was their access to income generating opportunities. Through education and training, individuals acquire problem solving skills and entrepreneur management skills which inturn, help them set up and operate successful ventures, in the process creating employment opportunities. In addition, as the field of education grows within a country with more universities, colleges, high schools and primary schools being constructed, more job opportunities are created in the education sector. Persons who are well educated are likely to secure better paying jobs, which inturn increases their purchasing power plus it increases the demand for goods and services available in the economy. The net effect of this, is creation of more job opportunites in the production and service sectors. These persons are able to improve their standards of living including those of their dependants. In addition, issues of health and fertility are decided upon from a knowledgeable point, (Newell and Reilly, 1999). Through education, individuals are exposed to society and they acquire important attributes and values that can help them enhance their capacity to interact and relate with other persons in society. As a result, they able to adapt and cope with the dynamics of the workplace. Last but not least, education as a contributor to human capital enhances economic growth and development in a country, since the human capital is equipped on how to exploit the countrys’natural resources profitably. Countries lacking this human capital are neither able to exploit their resources adequately, nor are they able to develop their economy at the desired pace. Barro (1998) argues that human capital enhances absorption and application of superior technologies from other countries. Young and educated persons under the guidance of the older folk are able to conduct research and development. The improved technology in a transitional economy enhances the speed and quality of production of goods and services, through improved and more cost efficient work processes. The young industries are in turn able to meet rising demands, both domestic and foreign hence increasing their revenues and taxes to the government. Munich et al (1999), argue that in a transition economy, government support and positive attitude towards investments in human capital is essential. The government has to allocate funds for example for building schools and also for enticing people to enroll in this schools. However, the maintenance of the enrollment levels is a continued process whose economic benefits are only realised over time as was seen in the Czech Republic. In support of this argument, Spagat (1995) warns that it is even though human capital takes years to accumulate, it actually takes a very short while to deteriorate, hence governments cannot afford to postpone this investment, even temporarily. The governments must ensure that education and other skills are transferred effectively from one generation to the next. Restructuring of education, needs to be done from the very beginning of the transition from socialism, in order to immediately improve educations’ quality. There is a multiplier effect that comes with better quality education. The first being an increased access to job opportunities, higher wages and consequently more tax revenue for the government. The major effect however, is that it sets the standards for future generations, both in terms of quality of education and future incomes, (Spagat, 2002). Fan et al (1999) said that the young people of Russia during the transition had little or no motivation to put effort to pursue education. This is because the education system had not been restructured to match the market-oriented system and therefore the returns were not high. World Bank (1995) accused Russia of concentrating on spewing out scientists and engineers instead of producing a mixture of professionals who would support the different sectors of Russia’s’ economy. They only increased between 1991 and 1994, but this human capital investment deteriorated again by 1996, (Brainerd (1998). In order to make ends meet, many dropped out of school and opted for jobs such as taxi drivers, street vendors and some even joined the Mafioso for a quick buck. All was not lost however, when we remember individuals like the Hungarian–American entrepreneur George Soros, who provided funds that would help these countries implement reforms for a better future. OECD (1996) advised that schools and tertiary institutions should not be the only avenues through which education is attained. OECD (1996) advised that adult learning should be encouraged in order to help the older generations access more income. In addition, pre-schooling of children below the age of formal schooling, which was a common feature of the FSU countries fostered child development and also prepared these children for formal education. In these former Soviet Union countries, the major advantage of pre-schooling their young children was in the fact that it freed the women to participate in economic activities, and it also reduced education disparities between children of the educated parents and those of the less educated parents. Micklewright (2000) wrote that investment in learning institutions ensures sustained educational gains. For example, in some of the Soviet Union countries, teachers earned wages so low that they spent their time looking for more income instead of teaching. In addition, repair and maintenance of the buildings was neglected and with lack of heating during winter, schools would be closed. The other problem was the shortage of textbooks. However, these countries tried to salvage the situation by offering meals at school between 1989 and 1996, in order to entice parents to take their children back to school. In countries such as, Yugoslavia, Armenia, Georgia, Tajikistan and Albania, the transition was characterised by serious geographical disparities caused by war, civil and ethnic strife. Facilities were destroyed, hundreds of families were displaced out of their homes and schools were closed, (World Bank, 1997b), thus slowing down the ongoing projects. Human capital is vital for growth of transition economies. Growth should be stimulated across all sectors of the economy and in each part of the country so as to rapidly raise the standards of living and reduce inequalities between urban and rural areas. Keen interest should be paid especially to rural areas, in order to eliminate the possibility of mushrooming of pockets of poverty across the country. According to Flemming and Micklewright (1999), ensuring that access to education is recognized by FSU countries as a human right as stipulated in international law, will greatly boost growth of human capital. Equal rights promote equal access to opportunities and it also reduces discrimination based on gender, race, religion or economic status. Income inequality rose in the Czech Republic and Russia and was very high between 1988 and 1996. In order to support a transition economy, Spagat (2002) suggests that a balance should be created between skilled and unskilled labour. This is because most young people either worked on a full time basis and neglected pursuit of higher education, or they pursued higher education and then begun working at a later stage. One of the negative impacts of education on a country is that by having too many educated persons, the labor market gets saturated thus resulting in a drop in the amount of wages that employers are willing to offer. In turn this acts as a demotivator of the labor force and may also result in brain drain whereby qualified personnel leave their mother country for better opportunities in other countries. The unemployed persons are normally seen resulting to social ills such as alcoholism, drug abuse and robbery amongst others. These social ills inturn dissuade local and foreign investors from putting their money in an unsafe country.

Soy Protein: Can It Really Prevent Cancer? Essay -- Research Biology E

Soy Protein: Can It Really Prevent Cancer? Society possesses a natural fear of the disease cancer. Even though this term is common, uncertainty surrounds its meaning. What exactly is cancer? A simple definition for a complicated disease is this: abnormal cell growth. Cancer can develop in just about any part of the body, and as abnormal cells grow, they crowd and destroy healthy tissue. This disease is not infectious, for if it were, a vaccination would have probably been developed by now. However, extensive research is continuously being conducted to find a cure or more effective treatments for this mysterious disease. "Evidence shows that lifestyles and diet are mostly responsible for the different cancer rates around the world." The following information discusses possible cancer prevention by the consumption of soy products. Again, a familiarity with the studied term is necessary. What is soy? "Soy" comes from soybean, a legume which is native to Northern China. It is often called a complete protein. This is because it is the most complete protein source from vegetables and is as good as animal protein in meat products. Soy protein, which has been stated to be of "highest caliber," contains many essential nutrients. It has been stated that populations who regularly include soy protein in their diets and reduce meat intake are generally healthier in that their risks for certain diseases are reduced. These include cancer, especially breast cancer in women and prostate cancer in men. The basic assumption that has been made about soy is that its consumption as a dietary staple reduces the risk of a variety of cancers, such as breast cancer, prostate cancer, and colon cancer. A relat... ... Works Cited Barnes, S., et al. "Soy Isoflavonoids and Cancer Prevention." Advances in Experimental Medicine & Biology 401. (1996): 87-100. Barnes, Stephen. "Anticancer Effects of Genistein." The Journal of Nutrition 125 (1995): 777S-783S. Bergan, R., et al. "Genistein-stimulated Adherence of Prostate Cancer Cells Is Associated with the Binding of Focal Adhesion Kinase to Beta-1-integrin." Clinical & Experimental Mestastasis 14(4) (1996 Sept.): 389-398. Messina, M. J., et al. "Soy Intake and Cancer Risk: A Review of the In Vitro and in Vivo Data." Nutrition & Cancer 21(2) (1994): 113-131. Steele, Vernon E., et al. "Nonisoflavone Soybean Anticarcinogens." The Journal of Nutrition 125 (1995) 713S-716S.

Design of a New Generator

1. INTRODUCTION : Gas Turbine-Generator system has proximity to zero level due to absence of condenser. Therefore, Generator should have Terminal Bushings at the top of the Stator Frame. This avoids digging of tunnel / trench for routing Bus Duct and also avoids accumulation of gases from safety point of view. It was decided to develop a module THRI 108/44 for application with Gas Turbine. 2. DESIGN CHALLENGES : Since, bar type design of THRI 108/44 module for GTG application is not available. Hence the same had to be designed afresh taking the following major design challenges into consideration: . 1. Shifting Terminal bushings for tapping power from bottom to top. 2. 2. Location, number and size of coolers and cooler ducts in stator Frame to accommodate connections between Bus Bar and Terminal Bushings. 2. 3. Proven ventilation scheme inside stator frame for cooling of stator core, windings and its overhangs. 2. 4. Provision of static excitation system by providing slip ring shaft. 2. 5. Position of Barring Gear on Exciter End (non drive end) requiring Slip Ring shaft rotor having a matching coupling with generator rotor on one side and barring gear on other side. 2. 6. Provision of routing of piping emanating from bottom of stator and end shield in the foundation. 2. 7. Routing of connections between bus bar and terminal bushings maintaining required electrical connections 2. 8. Use of existing components as far as possible for inventory and variety reduction. 2. 9. Mechanical and Electrical calculations for soundness of design. 3. ACTION PLAN : 3. 1. Identification of assemblies for fresh designing – 34 numbers design groups out of 125 groups were identified to be designed afresh. (Annexure-1) 3. 2. Carrying out Exhaustive Electromagnetic, Mechanical, Ventilation & Heat Transfer calculations. . 3. Development of detailed design documents, scrutiny by technology, incorporating the changes suggested and release of documents (drawings and CBOM). 3. 4. Verification of design by Internal design groups – Internal design groups of experts were formed and Changes suggested by different groups were incorporated in the documents. 3. 5. Strengt h of stator frame under various load conditions, its natural frequency and rotor dynamics to be carried out by Corporate R & D to validate the design. 4. INNOVATIVE SOLUTIONS AND ITS DETAILS : 4. 1. Electromagnetic calculations were carried out and design data sheet issued for preparation of design documents. 4. 2. Since the Terminal Bushings are to be mounted at the top, there was no space available to accommodate 4 Nos. Hydrogen cooler ducts (400 x 570 mm), as provided in conventional THRI design (ref. Fig. 1). Therefore, it was decided to use two nos Twin-coolers (ref Fig. 2&3). This concept has 2 nos. twin coolers placed in two separate cooler ducts. Operating conditions of one cooler out of operation apply here also as in case of conventional 4 Nos. separate coolers. 4. 3. Changes in size of cooler and cooler ducts (550 x 650 mm) and duct location resulted in increase of width of stator body to 4200 mm from 4000 mm and height 4550 mm. Accordingly, stator body was redesigned completely maintaining routings of ribs, plates etc to follow the ventilation scheme of existing machine. Full length Foundation Support has been provided on stator in line with conventional GTGs. 4. 4. Due to the above mentioned increased dimensions of stator body, the generator is not suitable for rail transport (limit up to 4040 mm). Thus the generator stator shall have to be transported by road only. A dragging fixture has been designed and shall be welded to the bottom of stator frame to place it directly on the road trailer without requiring any additional fixture. It will also help placing the stator at any location without any support or can be dragged at power station for erection, if required. 4. 5. It was proposed to use common Core Assembly for GTG as well as STG for standardization and variety reduction. STG design required a power output of 261 MW. To enhance the MCR rating it was decided to optimize the ventilation flow paths in the stator core. Number of ventilation ducts has been increased from 85 to 98 without any increase in the total core length. Width of the ventilation ducts was earlier a combination of 5 mm & 10 mm, which has now been changed to 5 mm, 8 mm & 10 mm (refer Fig. 4). In order to optimize electromagnetic performance of the machine, net iron length of core is maintained same. Modified ventilation circuit vis-a-vis existing one is depicted in Figs. 5 & 6. 4. 6. Thickness of core ETS segments (Electro Technical Steel segments) has been increased from 0. 5 mm to 0. 65 mm without any loss in quality. This will enhance the rigidity of core end zone packets. It will also increase the productivity and reduce core assembly time in shop by about 30%. 4. 3. Shifting of Terminal Bushings to the top of Stator Frame, required redesign of Connecting Bus-bars and Arrangement of Terminal Bushing Connection Assemblies maintaining the air gap clearances(Fig-7). 4. 4. End Ring is introduced in this design for providing better rigidity in stator winding overhang. 4. 5. To make the generator suitable for static excitation system, new Slip Ring Shaft has been designed. Couplings of Slip Ring Shaft have been redesigned to suit TG rotor (EE) at one end and Barring gear at the other end. 4. 6. In view of relocation of terminal bushings, drawings related to temperature and pressure monitoring circuits were prepared afresh. 4. 7. There is no availability of overhead cranes in Gas Turbine hall over Turbogenerator due to low ceiling of the building. This poses a major challenge for insertion of rotor into stator. Rotor weighs around 42 tons. So, a new Trailer with Prime-Mover has been designed for Rotor Insertion in to Generator for GTG application. 4. 8. Design Documents (drawings and CBOMs) were sent to Corporate R & D for to carry out following calculations :- (1)Static Analysis – (a) Lifting of stator with 4 lugs b) Short Circuit Torque (c) Hydraulic test at 10 bar (2) Dynamic and Harmonic Analysis of Stator Frame with Core, Windings and rotor (3) Rotor Dynamics 4. 9. Generator Outline diagram for GTG is enclosed as Fig. 8. 5. RESULTS OF MECHANICAL CALCULATIONS : 5. 1. Static Analysis – Load ConditionsMaximum Stresses(N/mm? )Reference Lifting of Stator with 4 lugs110 Fig-9 Short Circuit Torque with 3. 5 bar internal pressure of Hydrogen238 Fig-10 Deformations of side wall due to Hydraulic Pressure of 10 bar (fig-11) Locations on side wallDeformations (mm) TEEE 1700 mm above centerline1. 040. 46 1700 mm below centerline0. 460. 40 5. 2. Dynamic and Harmonic Analysis of stator with core & windings DirectionFrequency PeakReference Axial32. 3 HzFig-12,13 Vertical82 HzFig-14 Horizontal136 HzFig-15 6. TECHNOLOGICAL GAINS : 8. 1. THRI bar type Turbogenerator has been developed for the first time for application with Gas Turbine. 8. 2. New design Stator can be placed directly on the trailer during transportation by road. It can be dragged at site during erection, if required. 8. 3. The new design of core is suitable for THRI STG design also due to improved ventilation. This will result in lower temperature rise leading to more reliable operation and enhanced life of the machine. . 4. Rationalisation and standardization of components has been taken into consideration to develop this design. Assemblies like Rotor, End Shield, Winding bars, Terminal Bushings, Shaft Seals, Oil Catchers etc will be used from that of existing design variant. 8. 5. Existing major tooling like those for fabrication & machining of Stator Frame, ass embly of core, Hydraulic and Pneumatic testing of Stator Frame will be used. 7. CONCLUSION : THRI bar type Turbogenerator has been developed in-house for the application with Gas Turbine. With the concerted efforts of the team the design work was completed by 31st August, 2005. This new design has been approved by an external review team comprising of experts from IIT- Roorkee, Corp. R&D and RC Puram besides Haridwar experts from Technology, Quality & Engineering. Discussions were also held at PEM Delhi along with R. C. Puram for erection and maintenance of various Generator components like coolers, End Shields, Insert Covers, Rotor, Slip Ring Shaft Assembly and Bearings etc. New design features were explained and these were taken in to account for development of Power Plant layout.

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